WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION? OR REASONS FOR POWER? THE UNTOLD STORY BEHIND THE US-IRAQ WAR

“If we don't end war, war will end us,” this quote by H.G.Wells signifies exactly the scenario present in Iraq for 7years. Civilians targeted with the pretext of them being militia, a country whose rule was completely destroyed for better and for worse, and a takeover by a foreign army who was sent with the excuse to ‘save the world.’- The US and Iraq war meant all of this, and more.

After having faced years of authoritarian rule under Saddam Hussein, Iraq was invaded by the US in 2003. Seemingly, the invasion was initiated over the existence of Weapons of Mass Destruction in Iraq, as well as Saddam Hussein’s failure to cooperate with UN weapons inspectors. However there are many questions that arise about the truth of this justification, as well as the legality of the invasion that occurred. It is true that the US-led coalition played an important role in defeating the Ba’ath party and the Iraqi army who had created havoc in the lives of the Iraqi people, however they also triggered an insurgency that caused double the havoc.

Even though USA invaded Iraq with ostensibly ‘good’ reasons, researchers, analysts, and inside informers had a different story- the real one. The real reasons can be summed up as deciding who controls the Middle East oil, who gets access to water from the Tigris and Euphrates, and most importantly what currency will be used to pay for the development of the oil and water resources worldwide.

With relation to the invasion being due to currency hassles, Iraq had begun to accept payment in Euros for its oil, thereby paving the way for all major oil producers to do the same. If this were to happen, the Euro would then be seen as the world’s reserve currency and the Dollar would have to forgo its place. This would have had a major negative impact on the US economy and would in turn severely reduce its ability to pour money into its weapons programs. However, by gaining control of Iraq’s oil the US could maintain the Dollars as the reserve currency, and therefore retain its position in the world wide trade.

It has been known that the region of Iraq is one which contains more than 60% of the world’s known reserves. With the existence of 115bn barrels of oil reserves, and a lot more of the country left to explore, Iraq has oil capacity only second to Saudi Arabia. The US, in contrast, holds the title of being the world’s largest net importer of oil. In 1990, a few years before the US invasion, the invasion motives were made public when Dick Cheney, the then Secretary of Defense, said on record that “Whoever controls the flow of Persian Gulf oil has a strange hold not only on our economy but also on the other countries of the world as well.” Therefore the invasion would help in gaining access to the oil reserves and help in acquiring large amounts of profits.

It is interesting to note that in 2002, when the US government-media propaganda began, 60% of the US population believed that Iraq was an imminent threat. This was something that people in Kuwait or even Iran did not believe in. Furthermore, about 50% of the population began to believe that Iraq was responsible for the September 11^th attacks on the World Trade Center. This government-media propaganda began to make people support the war, and with the backing of the public, it made the invasion justification stronger. It is also important to note that this media campaign gained its height during the mid-term election campaign for president. Seeing as how George Bush was willing to ‘protect’ the citizens, his support increased.

Noam Chomsky, renowned activist and philosopher, states a very interesting fact. He talks about the “new norms” that USA has established in their international relations matters. The “new norms” talk about ‘preventive war’. It is important to note that “preventive war” and “pre-emptive war,” though essentially meaning the same thing, are different. “Pre-emptive war” in essence means a war to protect ones country when a threat has been proven, and danger is sure to take place. In such a situation a country can attack the enemy on the basis of protecting oneself and therefore terming it as “pre-emptive war” However, Noam Chomsky rightly states that the war with Iraq is not “pre-emptive,” since according to USA the document stated ‘preventive war,’ the US has the right to attack any country that claims to be a potential challenge to it. This basically means that on whatever grounds, if the US feels threatened, they can plan an attack. The major difference between the general idea of “pre-emptive war” and “preventive war” lies in the fact that the former is a response to ongoing or imminent attack, while the latter is based on mere assumption. With relation to Iraq, the very norm of “preventive war” has been put into effect, thereby proving that the accusations made by USA about Iraq possessing Weapons of Mass Destruction, are baseless.

It has also been proven that the war on Iraq, had been a part of the geopolitical strategy of the USA for many years. It was a part of the strategy to help US domination of the world’s economic resources. This plan was formed in the “National Security Strategy of the USA,” which was later published. Analysts say that the document clearly talks about the ‘right of USA’ to rid any country of its regime, and pay no heed to the sovereignty of the country that allegedly might turn hostile to them. The document begins by boasting that “United States possesses unprecedented and unequaled strength and influence in the world.” The document also subtly talks about the wars against small and defenseless states which will prove to be the preparation for military onslaughts against more formidable targets.

Scandals such as the Abu Ghraib Scandal in 2004, which showed circulated pictures of US service personnel humiliating and torturing prisoners in Abu Ghraib, and videos on Wiki leaks which show US forces killing innocent civilians without bothering to check if they are insurgents or militants, prove to be raw footage of power over humanity. Though the war ended in 2011, and America troops were cleared from Iraq by 31^st December 2011, the destruction and damage that the war created lingers on. The deadly violence is omnipresent, and the evidence of pervasive mayhem is constant. The entire concept of entering Iraq, making the world believe that the act is justified, and leaving an already broken country in a worsened state, clearly brings about only one question- is there a need for a regime change in Iraq, or should the US be putting itself in place first?

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

THE BIRTH OF A NATION: THE HISTORY OF IRAQ

The country of Iraq, personally, has always been alluring amongst all the countries on the world map. From being in a constant state of turmoil, to being in the limelight of the media, the country of Iraq has been in the eye of scrutiny for decades now. When one talks or reports about Iraq, it is usually about the conflicts and suppression faced by the people, therefore the true history and origin of the country is hidden beneath the more pressing matters.

Once known as Mesopotamia, Iraq was the site of flourishing ancient civilizations, including the Sumerian, Babylonian, and Parthian cultures. Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, which centered on the land between the Euphrates and the Tigres Rivers. In the medieval era, Iraq was the name of an Arab province that made up the southern half of the modern-day country. Today, Islam is the state religion of Iraq, and95% of the Iraqi population identify with the Arab culture. The Iraqi Muslims are split into two groups, namely the Sunnis and the Shias (Shiites). While the Sunnis are a majority in Islam, they are a minority in Iraq, and the Shias, a minority in the Islamic world, are a majority in Iraq. The conflict between these two groups is a constant one. The mountainous and hilly northern part of Iraq is occupied by the Kurds, who live in a politically autonomous settlement. The provinces of Sulaymaniyah, Dahuk, and Erbil are regions occupied by them, and these regions are commonly referred to as Kurdistan. While three fourths of the population of Iraq comprise of Arabs, the Kurds consist of about one-fifth. The rest of the population is divided into several ethnic groups such as Assyrian, Armenian , Turkoman, Chaldean, Jewish, and Yazidi.

Beginning from pre-history, Mesopotamia has been under the power of numerous civilizations. It was in 4000 B.C during which the land belonged to the Sumerian civilization. The civilization helped building irrigation systems, developed the earliest form of writing, and produced great forms of literature. The Sumerian thought process was very different from their Egyptian counter parts. While the Egyptian’s believed that all land belonged to the Pharaoh, the Sumerians believed in the right to private property, which is still an important practice followed to this day in Iraq.

The Sumerian civilization collapsed in the year 1700 B.C. It was during this time that the ruler King Hammurabi, took over the area and renamed it Babylonia. Hammurabi was a great monarch who was responsible for creating the first recorded legal code in history. The country went through many changes in power until Nebuchadnezzar II came to rule from 604 to 562 BC., and restored Babylon to its former glory. Presently, Babylon is approximately forty-eight kilometers south of the Iraqi capital Baghdad.

Babylonia had become a part of the Persian Empire until the Arab Muslims overtook it eventually. At the time of the invasion, the majority of the population was Christians and was forced to pay non-Muslim tax to the invaders. The Persians were eventually defeated, and the people of the region began converting to Islam. This led to numerous intermarriages with Arabs.

The capital city of Baghdad was formed in the 8^th century by the then ruling empire-the Abbasid Caliphate. It soon became an important cultural, educational, and commercial center and linked Asia to Mediterranean countries via trade. The city welcomed visitors, scholars, traders, and was the center of the production of incredible philosophical and scientific works by both Arab and Persian thinkers.

From the Arab rule of the Abbasid Caliphate, the transfer of power went to the Mongols. The invasion by the Mongols took place in the 1200s, and they ruled strong till the 1400s. The 16^th century brought about a new rule, the Ottoman Turks. Their reign lasted till the end of World War I. The Ottoman Empire was defeated in the war and since they had sided with Germany and were amongst the Central Powers, the League of Nations assigned Britain to set up the administration of the original land of Mesopotamia which had been under the rule of so many.

The British finally defined the territory of Iraq but hardly paid any attention to natural boundaries and ethnic division. They set up an institutional framework for government and politics, and were responsible for the installation of a monarch. Nominal independence from the British mandate was achieved in 1932. The imposed Hashemite monarchy was eventually overthrown on 14^th July 1958, and Iraq was declared a Republic. The ten years that followed were laden with much political instability.

The Ba’ath party took over after 158, and created a dictatorship. From July 1979 to March 2003, Iraq was ruled by Saddam Hussein who also belonged to the Ba’ath party. The invasion of the U.S. in 2003, resulted in overthrowing the Hussein regime, as he was accused of many heinous crimes. It was during this time that The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA) assumed administrative and security responsibility for Iraq. On june 28^th 2004, the CPA transferred power to the Iraqi Interim Government. A new 4-year constitutionally-based government took office in March 2006, and the new cabinet was installed in May 2006. On June 31^st 2009, U.S. troops withdrew from the urban areas of Iraq, and this brought about a sense of reinforced Iraqi sovereignty. On March 7^th 2010, a second round of national elections was held to choose the members of the Council Of Representatives, and therefore the executive branch of the government. By August 2010, the U.S. forces in Iraq drew down to 50,000 troops, and entirely departed on December 18^th 2011 with a conclusion of a security agreement.

The history of Iraq has involved numerous civilizations, toms of invasions, and has been at the mercy of many rulers. The country has witnessed countless invasions, and is known for its constant perilous atmosphere. It is true that many reforms have been made, and changes have brought about a sense of progress, but the country of Iraq has a lot more to accomplish. Leaving the past as mere history, the country needs to work towards making its future a less turbulent one.

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION VS. DEATH: THE STATE OF THE MEDIA IN IRAQ

Speak up, report, spread awareness, criticize, put forth opinions, question, analyze and be killed- The basic policy of the Iraqi Government towards the media of/in Iraq. Iraq, termed as the deadliest country in the world for journalists every year from 2003 to 2008, the third deadliest in 2009, and the second deadliest in 2010 and 2011 by the Committee to Protect Journalists (CPJ), has not witnessed much change after Saddam Hussein’s stringent rule.

According to a report by Reporters Without Borders, titled The Iraqi Media: 25years of relentless repression, The media of Iraq was initially one of the freest in entire Middle East. Through the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, to the English Monarchy, the media of Iraq has undertaken fair reportage without any political intervention. Prior to the Ba’athist revolution in 1968, the Iraqi media experienced freedom. However after the revolution, due to the constant political turmoil and violence, the press suffered great civil unrest. The press succumbed to political pressures and shifted their allegiance with each regime that took control. From the Islamic regime, to the Democrats, to the Kurds, to the Ba’athists, and the Communist, the freedom of press became more and more limited.

The control of the media was non-violent at first, however by the 1970’s it changed for the worst. By the end of the 1970’s the methods used to control and intimidate journalists became extreme. Judicial harassments, arrests, death threats, prolonged detentions, incidents of torture, and executions increased dramatically.

When Saddam Hussein took over Iraq’s presidency in 1979, he brought with him major censorships and restrictions on the media. His motive lay in crushing the few political opponents and independent media voices that were still running. By the mid-1980’s, the ruling Ba’ath party, and the family of Saddam Hussein had established a complete monopoly on the media. It was in 1986, where in the Iraqi’s ruling Revolutionary Command Council issued Order Number 840 which imposed a death penalty on anyone who criticized or insulted the president. Authorities’ began to use brute force which even included cuttings tongues of journalists who strayed from official political propaganda.

Uday Hussein, the son of the president, was the head of the Iraqi Journalist Union, a mandatory union for all Iraqi journalists. Assuming this leadership position in 1992, he exercised complete control over television and radio stations, and managed numerous newspapers, including Babel which had the largest distribution in Iraq.

During the Iran-Iraq war from 1980-1988, the media of Iraq grew increasingly insular, and the country lost out on the information revolution that was then sweeping most parts of the globe. Satellite dishes were banned, and violators were punished with fines as well as imprisonment up to six months. The regime also made sure to jam signals from broadcasts who offered alternative views and information outside the country.

When the commercialization of the Internet began in the late 1980’s, Iraq was the last country to gain access to the internet. Internet was finally introduced in the late 1990’s; even then the government controlled all the internet servers in Iraq. The Iraq’s ministry of information blocked access to many websites and permitted e-mails only from Iraq-based servers that copied messages to the government. Foreign newspapers were prohibited inside Iraq, and the government kept a close check on foreign journalists. They limited their access to the public, therefore blocking out the atrocities performed by Saddam Hussein’s regime in reports to the outside world.

The Iraqi media finally enjoyed an unprecedented boom in the months that followed the downfall of the Hussein regime, which was overthrown by the U.S. invasion. During the time of Saddam Hussein in 1990, there were only two TV channels, two radio stations, and two daily newspapers that operated in the evening only. However in 2003, after the regime had ended, there was a spike in the number of satellite dishes, number of people with access to the internet, and many more independent media outlets. It has been estimated that over 200 newspapers and magazines appeared in Iraq, although according to BBC reports not even half of them survived the first year with the economic imbalance. The new media outlets ensured that they reflected a broad perspective of opinions and views that were previously crushed by the political regime of Saddam.

Even though scores of newspapers and media outlets blossomed following the removal of Saddam, the new found freedom of the media posed a threat to the new government, and the attacks on both local as well as international journalists continue till this day. It has been reported that since the invasion, 341 Iraqi journalists and media workers have been killed.

On 8^th January 2011, Iraqi Journalists, parliamentarians, and government officials united to call for the promotion and protection of a free and pluralistic media. The media conference was held at the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) headquarters in Paris. During the conference, participants agreed that journalists should hold a civilian status during conflict, as stated in the Geneva Convention. They even spoke of creating a national fund to support the families of slain journalists.

Nour-al-Maliki, the current Prime Minister of Iraq, sworn in for his second term in 2010, launched an attack on freedom of speech and expression when he arrested tens of journalists and activists after the beginning of anti- political demonstrations in Baghdad. However three days later the Iraq’s Society for Defending Press Freedom filed an appeal with Iraq’s federal court against the government and its ‘Journalist Right Laws,’ which the group argued had contradicted four articles from Iraq’s constitution.

In another report written in 2012, by ‘Reporters Without Borders’ it has been stated that the threat to the Iraqi media staff comes from the authorities and political figures who block them from accessing certain areas. Legal proceedings against newspapers for ‘defamation,’ as well as abusive measures, have become commonplace. Armed groups, Iraqi police and authorities who are responsible for law and order, are themselves committing acts of violence against journalists.

Blogging has become a way to publish what traditional media does not run, and bloggers in Iraq see it as a ‘way to breathe.’ However the popularity of Blogging has not been able to reach far into the interiors of the country due to frequent power cuts, poor infrastructure, and the dire security situation. Internet penetration is at a mere 2.8% out of a population of 30million. Bloggers mention that they have to be extremely cautious while blogging and have to be very aware of when to use their real names and when to take on an alias.

The lack of an independent judiciary system, the financial challenges, and security threats faced by independent media houses, the cultural conservatism of the government, and the lack of laws protecting freedom of speech have ensured that the media is a suppressed force in Iraq. If the only true mass voice that reaches the people is influenced, then one can only wonder whether the country’s form of ‘justice’ will ever let truth prevail.

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

SADDAM HUSSEIN: SUPRESSION BEYOND MERE WORDS

Human life, Valued? Protected? Or seen as Puppets dancing to a master’s melody? Imagine yourself in a dark cell, a single light hanging from a crack in the ceiling. Living every solitary moment with the stench of stale food, foul air, and echoes of screaming prisoners finding a way to detach themselves from this horrific life. Try picturing several other people reduced to shivering, skeletal, barely living bodies curled up on the floor. Now, picture torture. Your skin being ripped off, hard metal beating against your body, sharp knives tearing into your skin, and poisonous gas suffocating you to death.

Your crime: thinking the wrong thought.

While most major countries were enjoying the intellectual, political and sexual liberation brought forth by the 60’s, peace and love was not the main agenda in Iraq. 1968 saw huge political turmoil as Saddam Hussein, a leading member of the Ba’ath political party, a party that endorsed the creation of a single Islamic State in the world, overthrew Abdul Rahman Arif and appointed Al-Bakr as the president and himself as his deputy, and deputy chairman of the Ba'athist Revolutionary Command Council.This, however, was a farce and in 1969, it became apparent that Hussein was the driving force behind Al-Bakr’s political administrations.

Like most dictators, Hussein began by working towards the benefit of Iraq by introducing free and compulsory education, modernizing the economy, granting free hospitalization, providing subsidies to farmers, supporting the families of soldiers, introducing electricity to most parts of the country, mechanizing agriculture building roads, promoting industries such as mining and nationalizing oil interests, earning, both, admiration and love from his people and an award from UNESCO.

But, as they say, uneasy is the head that wears the crown. Hussein’s work began shifting towards security in terms of, both, himself and his country. He began developing his chemical weapons program in 1972 and signed a 15 year Treaty of Friendship and Cooperation with the Soviet Union.

Knowing that the Ba’athists only held the support of a 20% minority of the Sunnis, Hussein resorted to a “Big Brother” approach in his political ideology. Like his counterpart in Orwell’s 1984, he had thousands of portraits, posters, statues, and murals erected in his honor. One could spot his face on the sides of buildings, shops, walls, schools, airports, elements of clothing and the Iraqi currency. Apart from these, Saddam Hussein also employed the use of the secret police, torture, murders, rape, abductions, deportations, forced disappearances, assassinations, chemical weapons, and the destruction of wetlands in order to maintain control over his people.

While the motto of the Ba’ath Party was “Unity, Liberty, and Socialism,” Hussein went as far as denying crucial Human Rights to his people if they did not follow his train of thought. Fearing retaliation, he restricted political participation at the National Level to members of Ba’ath, who constituted only 8% of the total population. Iraqi citizens were not allowed to assemble in groups unless it was to support the political party and police check points throughout the country restricted their movement inside the country and in terms of travelling abroad.

With paranoia over losing his position gaining strength day by day, Saddam began resorting to genocide, leading to the birth of the Al-Anfal Campaign of 1988. This was aimed towards the extermination of the Kurdish people, mainly the Shiites, who supported Iran during the Iran-Iraq war. Methods of extermination included mass executions and disappearances of many noncombatants, widespread use of chemical weapons including Sarin, mustard gas, and nerve killing agents that killed thousands. The capture and imprisonment of women, children, and men, destruction of homes and villages, including schools, mosques, and farms were amongst the many negative things that took place.

The Halabja Massacre, or Bloody Friday, aimed against the Kurdish people, occurred on March 18, 1988, during the end of the Iran-Iraq war and is considered a separate historical event from the Al-Anfal Campaign. The attack lasted five hours and mainly consisted of rockets and napalm. Methods of dying ranged from coughing, just dropping dead, regurgitating green toxic vomit, and hysterical laughter fits before eventually dying.

In 1991, after losing control of Kuwait during the Gulf War, Saddam Hussein massacred more members of the Kurdish community and citizens in southern Iraq who had begun to form an uprising against him. The estimates of deaths during this time range from 20,000 to 100,000 for Kurds, and 60,000 to 130,000 for Shiites.

In 1994, new penalties such as amputation, branding, and extermination were awarded for crimes such as theft, corruption, currency speculation and desertion of the army. Various torture chambers that administered the use of body hooks and electrocution were also found throughout the country.

Saddam Hussein was captured and held in custody by U.S. forces at the U.S. base “Camp Copper,” on June 30^th 2004. He along with 11 senior Ba’athist leaders were legally handed over to the Iraqi interim government to stand for trials against the several offences they had committed.

On December 30^th 2006, Saddam Hussein met his fate- execution. He was sentenced to death after being charged with crimes against humanity by the Iraqi Special Tribunal. His execution was run by media channels all over the globe, and the world watched his last walk to the gallows. Unprofessional as, relaying the execution live seemed, people over the world watched glued to their screens, the death of a man who had caused the death of a million.

Saddam Hussein’s tight regime lead not only to his downfall and execution but also to altering the perception of Iraq from a well-developing country making progress in the late 60’s and early 70’s to one which needed a strong helping hand. Leaders are meant to lead with passion and understanding; however in this case, it was evident that this leader was solely interested in ‘leading.’

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

VOICES OF BAGHDAD: A NEW KIND OF JOURNALISM

Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, the city of fear. Baghdad’s streets are permanently filled with music, music of a different sort. Ambulance sirens, loud explosions, the screams of civilians, and the cry of a relative who has one less to hold- these are the sounds of Baghdad, the music that the city sings. Many have gone to explore this capital, from Journalists, to politicians, to researches, to activists. One such individual who has taken the city’s voice and transformed it into a new kind of Journalism is Annet Hennenmen.

Annet Hennenmen, originally from Spain, is the founder, director, and actor of theatre group- Teatro di Nacosta, meaning Hidden Theatre. The theatre group was founded 14 yrs ago in order to create awareness amongst the world about the conditions of civilians in a conflict zone, economically unstable, or a war torn country. This genre of theatre uses art as a medium of journalism. Travelling through India, Iran, Palestine, Turkey, Jordan and Iraq, Annet tells real life stories from the perspective of the people who are living them. The theatre group was essentially founded for theatre reportage on refugees and asylum seekers.

In 2011, Annet decided her next project would be held in the Iraqi capital of Baghdad. She spent 8 days with four Iraqi men whose stories spoke volumes about the conditions they were living in. The four men who essentially played the ‘Voices of Baghdad’ were Ali, Fouad, Mustafa, and Yasir. These men, regardless of the risk in doing so, performed this work of theatre reportage to remind their audience of the human lives behind all the statistics, the significance in human terms of yet another political or religious explosion. The men aged 28, have lived through three wars, namely the Iran-Iraq war, the Gulf war, and the recently ended American war.

The rehearsals were held in a building opposite ‘Our lady of Salvation Catholic Church’,’ where in 2010, a bomb blast left 52 people dead. The premier performance took place in Erbil on the 8^th of October 2011. The audience included people from Basra, Baghdad, and Erbil, and it was said that intense emotion was felt through the hall at the end of the performance. It was at the end of the show, that Annet addressed the audience and said, “I wanted to share with the people because sharing creates understanding and that understanding can start to make little changes.”

‘Voices of Baghdad’ gave importance to the pain and suffering felt amongst the people of Baghdad, along with the sufferings faced during three wars and one internal revolution. The major problems underlined were the Al-Qaeda attacks, Kurdish rebels, and sectarian suicide bombers who attack all parts of the country. The scenes enacted showed the streets of Baghdad which were lined with unpredictable mines and explosives, as well as random gun firing. The theatre group also tackled the issue of the common car bombs that set off at places such as police stations, markets, hospitals, commercial zones, water treatment plants etc. They also stressed on the hygiene factor of the city mainly targeting the fact that many parts of the city are void of garbage collection. Water and electricity even if present, are available only for certain parts of the day, and this was another issue which was focused on.

Annet Hennenmen, stated that her close involvement with her actors, made her feel like she was playing the mother of South Iraq. The familiarity created due to sharing such intense stories of war, losing family members, of witnessing explosions, or seeing people die on the roads, made the actors her children who she wanted to encourage to speak loud and be heard. She realized in the course of her stay that while some left Baghdad, others decided to stay since even though it was full of danger, it was eventually their home. Annet said that even though once she left she knew the situation would remain the same, her theatre performances she hoped, would bring about a sense of empathy and understanding.

In her work, Annet ensured a feeling which made the people of Baghdad and Iraq realize that they were not alone in their moment of torture, in the solitude of their cell. Making one aware meant that by just the act of making them aware, meant that you had done something. Done something in a way which helped changed their understanding of the lives of people through war, or the ones who had escaped war.

One of the largest breakthrough’s for the actors of ‘Voices in Baghdad’ was the fact that they were amongst 30 performers, writers, artists, journalists, directors, and musicians from Egypt, Turkey, Palestine, Spain, Holland, Afghanistan, and the UK, to make their voice heard at the international meetings held in Volterra, Italy. The meetings held from 27^th October to the 30^th of October focused on making the public aware of people living through oppression, conflict, imprisonment, and poverty.

The theatre performance in Baghdad was important in a way which made people stand besides the tortured, living in the same difficult situation, and not above them. It helped in bringing an understanding between the victims and the audience as a feeling of ‘empathy’ rather than ‘sympathy’ was discovered. Creating such strong motivational links is important to create a network of change and progress. Baghdad needs the world to lend a helping hand, and what better way to do so than to see a performance which helps you fit in their shoes?

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

THE PAST IN THE PRESENT: THE HOLY BATTLE OF KARBALAH

‘Sukoon,’ the only word strong enough to describe the emotion on entering Karbalah. Walking on arid pavements, where once only sand lay, wearing five layers of woolens in the night, when centuries ago one had to make do with robes, and passing through dim lit streets, where once the starlight lit the land- Karbalah, the land of Hussein, the land where Shiites crave to visit, the land where centuries ago, bloodshed brought about the emergence of a stronger belief in Islam.

Maulana Hussein, son of Imam Ali was performing Haj when he received numerous letters from the distressed people of Kufa asking him to save them from the wrath of the Yazid. The Yazid, the 2^nd Caliph of the Umayyad Caliphate, was driven by might, power, and arrogance to kill Maulana Hussein whose influence was spreading at a fast and powerful pace across the Islamic world. He therefore threatened the people of Kufa, urging them to call Maulana Hussein to the city, where he and his troops had planned an attack.

Maulana Hussein, along with his family and followers, started undertaking their journey to Kufa to attend to the people in need. Foreseeing his martyrdom, Imam Hussein requested his family and seventy two army men to stay back in Mecca. Even so, they vouched to stay by his side. In the midst of their journey they encountered a small troop belonging to the Yazid. The troops led by Hur’Aleh Salam were extremely exhausted and thirsty and begged for water to Maulana Hussein. Maulana Hussein gave the troops every ounce of water they possessed, despite them being the enemy. Hussein, then asked what this land they had stopped on was known as and that’s when he was greeted with the response- Karbalah. Revelation dawned upon him, this was the holy land of Karbalah, the land where his grandfather Prophet Mohammed had told him he would breathe his last. Maulana Hussein stopped along with his family and decided to set up tents along the river Euphrates, waiting for the enemy to attack. It was the month of Moharram, and this very month is mourned to this day by Shiites all over the world.

It was three days before the epic battle of Karbalah, that the Yazid and his army starved Maulana Hussein’s family of food and water. When Maulana Hussein begged a member of the army to spare his six month old baby Aliazgar of this inhumane act, the soldier pierced the baby’s neck with an arrow, proving that no one would be spared.

The afternoon of the 9^th of Moharram, was when the Yazid’s army was preparing for attack. However Imam Hussein asked them for one last night of prayers and meditation, and they agreed. On the 10^th day of Moharram, the battle began. It is on this day that sermons are held by Shiite Maulanas’, all over the globe re-counting the horrific events of the day. The first death of the Ah le-Baith (Imam Hussein’s family) began with Hussein’s brother Abbas-E-Alamdaar. Imam Hussein’s young daughter Sakina could not bear the thirst anymore, and approached her uncle Abbas for help. He instantly climbed on his horse, and started riding towards the river Euphrates from where the army had pushed them away. Guards hid behind bushes ensuring that none of the Ah le-Baith would approach the river for water. Abbas-E-Alamdaar, holding a water container in his hands approached the river and started to collect water in his container. He suddenly felt a sharp arrow pierce through his left hand, he took the water container in the right hand and continued to collect water, an arrow then pierced the right hand as well. Determined to collect water for his thirsty niece, Abbas-E-Alamdaar picked the water container in his mouth, the guards seeing this, pierced an arrow straight through his mouth leading to his death. The first death of the day had happened, and Maulana Hussein’s brother was no more.

Amongst the people who fought the battle, Imam Hussein’s son Ali Akbar, and nephew Abdullah fought with as much strength and power they could muster, but were eventually killed. The afternoon’s scorching sun bore down on the family, and amongst the men of the family, Maulana Hussein was the only one remaining to fight. Commanding the battle all this time, he knew his time of death had arrived. He appointed his ailing son Ali-Zainul Abaideen to carry on the Imam’s lineage which exists to this day. The Yazid had chosen his right hand man Shimr to kill Imam Hussein since he was the only man in the army who dared to commit such a crime. The enemy was thirsty and their thirst lay in the Imam’s blood. In a matter of seconds, the Yazid achieved what he wanted, but had unknowingly created such a strong belief in Imam Hussein, that Shiites all across the world beat their chests in mourning through the month of Mohharam. Shimr beheaded Imam Hussein without an ounce of remorse, and he along with his army paraded all over Iraq with the head of Maulana Hussain on his spear. It was at the moment of Imam Hussein’s death that all hell broke loose. Tents were put on fire, woman and children were beaten, bodies were walked over, and captives were taken whose eventual fate was death and death alone. Among the women, Zainab, the sister of Imam Hussein mourned, having to witness the massacre of her sons, nephews’ and her own brother, in the bloodiest way of barbaric killing.

The army travelled with the head of Imam Hussein from Iraq, through Damascus, all the way to Egypt. It is for this reason that the head of Imam Hussein is buried in Egypt, while the body lies in Iraq. When one undertakes a pilgrimage to Karbalah, one visits the mausoleums of Imam Hussein, Abbas-E-Alamdar, the land where the tents were put up, the hill from where Zainab stood and watched her brother’s death, and the graves of various other family members and companions who died in the battle.

The mausoleums of Imam Hussein and Abbas-E-Alamdar are connected through a common pathway. The domes are large and golden and stand as magnanimous structures bound by 5 layers of tight security. Followers are seen camping out nights outside the mausoleums to gain blessings and have their prayers answered. One can even see believers in penance crawling to the mausoleums, walking with bare feet on the gravel laden path, or even fasting for days before entering the doors of the Imam’s shrine. The interiors of both the mausoleums are grand, and flaunt Turkish carpets, numerous chandeliers, and several precious stones forming designs. The crowd inside each mausoleum is overwhelming, and people’s personal photographs and currency of various countries fill up the walls of the graves signifying various mannats. The grave, enclosed by a silver and golden jali, has been funded by the Dawoodi Bohra head priest Dr. Syedna Mohammad Burhanuddin Saheb along with the Turkish government. Within the shrine of Imam Hussein, also lies the grave of the 72 army men who fought for Imam Hussein in the battle of Karbalah. His sons Aliazgar, and Ali Akbar, lie next to his grave, and are enclosed within the same jali.

The spiritual journey to Karbalah, walking on the same ground where the Prophet’s family shed their blood, takes you into a world where the power of the Almighty seems so near and so approachable. Even though one hears these stories every year in the month of Moharram, the passion, and emotion these stories evoke is one which is indescribable. To write about the power and martyrdom of Hussein, and bring in the same sense of passion through words, is impossible. No words are powerful enough, no translations are good enough, and no explanations are complete enough to define the love Imam Hussein has spread, and the belief he has mustered in every Shiite worldwide. Here I sit and write about the story unfolded centuries ago, while the sensation of the battle happening yesterday does not seem to fade.

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

FIGHTING FOR SURVIVAL: THE WOMEN OF IRAQ

Unfair, Unjust, and Uncalled for- the treatment of woman in the country of Iraq post 1978. Victims of rape, faces marked with acid attacks, and scars affecting more than just flesh, this is the state of Iraqi woman today. As war, conflict and insurgency began; Women’s bodies and women’s independence became the battleground of ethnic, religious, and political strife.

Historically speaking, the women of Iraq have had the privilege of a lot more rights than the rest of the Middle-Eastern countries. The Iraqi Provisional Constitution (drafted in 1970) formally granted equal rights to women, along with specifications regarding their education, right to vote, run for political office, and own property. They were also allowed to hold jobs in the Civil Service Sector, along with a year’s maternity leave, and freedom from sexual harassment at the work place. The fact that the government encouraged women to work broke down the traditional belief of woman working outside the home being considered a sin. With regard to personal status laws which were modestly amended in 1978, divorced mothers were granted custody of their children till the age of 10, at which time, at the discretion of a state-employed judge, custody could be extended to the child’s 15^th birthday. The child could then choose which parent to live with.

The most significant political factor that began the decline of woman’s rights in Iraq, was Saddam Hussein’s decision to embrace fanatic Islamic and tribal traditions as a political tool to consolidate power. In 1998, at the beginning of his reign, it was reported that all females working in government agencies were dismissed. Furthermore, a women’s freedom to travel abroad without a male relative was legally restricted and co-educational institutions were forced to cater to a single sex. Due to financial constraints, families preferred to send only the male child to school leaving the girl child uneducated. In 2001, the U.N. Special Reporter for Violence against Women, reported that an estimated 4,000 women and girls had been victims of ‘honour killings.”

In the years following the 1991 Gulf War, the deterioration of woman’s rights during war began rapidly, and this remained the case through all the wars that took place thereafter. Women were greatly affected by the economic consequences of war, and lacked access to food, health care, and education. These effects were compounded by the changes in law that restricted the woman’s mobility and access to the formal sector in an effort to ensure jobs to men, along with appeasing religious and conservative groups.

As America entered Iraq, and the Islamic Militancy began, women were hurled into a new whirlwind of chaos and discrimination. In 2006, as violence increased dramatically across the country, families and community leaders imposed various restrictions on the life of women. Religious groups launched pressure campaigns on women to avoid ‘immoral’ or ‘un-Islamic’ behavior, and forced them to wear headscarves- including Christian woman in Baghdad. Many women had their heads shaved if they did not wear a headscarf, and many were stoned in the streets for wearing make-up. Unmarried woman dressing improperly became the victims of violent attacks in Basra. Forced marriages, honour killings, and kidnappings became a usual affair especially in the region of Kurdistan. Women were also used as bargaining tools or gifts among tribes.

Many women fled their homes due to the fact that their husbands were arbitrarily arrested by occupation forces or government personnel. Since a household without a man in such conditions was seen as vulnerable, women fled the country and stayed as refugees in Syria and Jordan. According to the United Nations, more than four million Iraqis have been displaced in the past seven years, including approximately 2.8million registered as internally displaced persons.

Professional working woman were shot dead on their way to the work place, and women drivers had their cars banged up and destroyed on the roads. Optimists say that the fact that 25% of Iraq’s Provincial Council comprises of women, goes to show that women have been empowered after the invasion. However the fact that political posters of women are blackened out, and covered with slogans such as ‘No women in politics,’ lies as a stark reminder of the opposition they face.

The violence in Iraq has resulted in the disappearance of women in the public sphere and has also minimized their role in the decision- making process. In order to combat this situation, it is necessary to encourage an increased participation through women organizations and combat the gender-discrimination through leadership skills amongst women. Baghdad Women Association and Women Leadership Institute are two organizations who are trying to meet the agenda of instilling leadership roles among women, and carrying out activities to spread the negative impact of gender based violence through street plays and drawing competitions. They also act as counseling centers, and provide a safe place for women who have been victims of violence, and offer them free legal support.

In July 2010, the UN Mission for Iraq (UNAMI) and the UN Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) worked on a resolution to continue promoting women’s human rights and to concentrate efforts on eradicating violence against women. In January 2011, the International Alliance for Justice, and No Peace Without Justice, gathered decision-makers and local and international civil society, for a conference on ‘the role of women in peace-building, reconciliation and accountability in Iraq.’

On International Women’s Day, 8^th March 2011, 17 Iraqi Women’s organizations announced the creation of a national network to combat violence against women in Iraq. The network known as Nuhud will be involved in the protection of women’s rights and will make sure that they comply with international conventions.

With organizations such as these, the women of Iraq have hope to lead a normal healthy life where their voice will be loud and strong, rather than meek and unheard. From having rights, to having none, the Iraqi women have suffered numerous atrocities which makes one questions whether humanity does truly exist in every human. Fear is now a constant emotion in the hearts of Iraqi women, and extinguishing that very flame of fear, is a challenge that one must strive to undertake.

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

SINGING FOR PEACE: THE NATIONAL YOUTH ORCHESTRA

If you had to use one word to describe Iraq, what would you say? Oil, Saddam Hussein, American Soldiers, Unsafe, Must visit? These would just be some of the apparent words that would feature in ones thinking process. However would one think of an orchestra? An orchestra which was founded by a 17yr old Iraqi girl does not seem to fit into the frame when one defines ‘Iraq.’

In 2008, Zuhal Sultan, an Iraqi student from Baghdad, decided to begin a National Youth Orchestra, which brought about 33 young musicians from all over the war-torn country to create a symphony. In the chaos that descended on her native Baghdad, as the war began in 2003, Zuhal experienced little in the way of a normal childhood. She was a scholarship student at the once prestigious Baghdad Music and Ballet School, which was on the brink of collapsing. The reputation and existence of the school was rapidly declining as most of the teachers fled the country in fear of being killed. Being seen with an instrument on the roads of Baghdad was seen as a sign of Western Culture and could prove dangerous for one’s survival. In the absence of a strong staff, it was Zuhal and her classmates who managed to keep the school alive.

It was this inability to learn peacefully, that drove her into beginning the National Youth Orchestra. It was through the social networking site Twitter, through which Zuhal was able to contact the Deputy Prime Minister of Iraq at that time, Barham Salih. After a meeting arrangement was made, Zuhal managed to convince him about the need of expressing thoughts of peace through music, which made him offer her a sum of US & 50,000 as seed money for the orchestra.

The Musicians for Harmony Foundation, launched by Allegra Klein shortly after September 11^th 2001, also played an important role in financing the National Youth Orchestra. Zuhal Sultan had helped them start their Mentorship program and in-turn they helped her spread awareness and finance the Youth Orchestra.

Then came the challenge of finding an instructor who was experienced as well as willing to teach students in Iraq. After advertising in newspapers, and approaching various councils, the British Council managed to draw the attention of Paul MacAlindin, a Scottish conductor living in Cologne, Germany. As he read the headlines in a newspaper which said 'Teenagers from Iraq are looking for a conductor for their orchestra,' he claimed that he immediately knew he would be the man for the job. In 2009, he decided to run a test phase of the project, and together he and Zuhal through means of You tube, and travelling Iraq, created a multi-cultural and multi-religious orchestra comprising of Kurds, Arabs, Christians, and Muslims. The Kurdish people had faced heavy repression under Saddam Hussein's regime, while tensions between the various ethnic and religious groups within Iraq had grown since the start of the war in 2003. The bringing in of the orchestra made the concept of ‘peace and survival as a team’ more plausible.

Most of the students were self taught and had gained their skills by way of reading websites and learning to play online. Paul MacAldin stated that the youthful pleasure of making music was missing in the students due to the harsh conditions they were living in. His aim was to ensure that the workshops would prove music could help the young players overcome the traumas of the war while also easing some of the tensions amongst the various ethnic groups in the orchestra.

Zohal’s dream finally turned into reality on 2^nd August 2009 when the ‘test’ summer program finally became an official one. Two weeks of intensive rehearsals, workshops and classes culminated in a public concert on 16^th August, held in Northern Iraq. As MacAldin would conduct, he said that he relied on two translators at his side who would repeat his words in Kurdish and Arabic.

Apart from the two-week orchestral course, The National Youth orchestra also began to offer courses in conducting, chamber music, and Master classes for woodwinds and string players. Several willing coaches were brought in from USA and UK. The August debut of the orchestra included European and Iraqi orchestral works such as: Beethoven- Prometheus Overture, Ali Khassaf- Iraqi Melodies, Dr.M.Zaza Chakar- Kurdish Dances and Haydn- Symphony No.99.

Taking into account the political and security situation, the support of the Kurdish Government and the British Council was imperative for the success of the program. Following the overwhelming success and given the high level of motivation amongst the students, a second working session was organized for the summer of 2010 in Erbil, Northern Iraq. This attracted widespread national and international interest.

In 2011, the orchestra got the opportunity to play abroad at the Beethovenfest in Bonn. This took place due to the fact that the festival had decided to sponsor an ensemble from a crisis region. The crucial factor in choosing the National Youth Orchestra of Iraq to play was due to the private, and dedicated commitment of the teachers, organizers, and students along with the favorable social and political outlook for the country. In honor of the trip, two works were commissioned for the group, one by an Iraqi Arab composer and another by an Iraqi Kurd.

This year, the group will be performing in the Edinburgh Festival. MacAlindin stated that it was still too dangerous for them to play in Baghdad, but he hoped for a concert in the Iraqi capital within a year or two.

Another major accomplishment achieved by the Youth Orchestra has been its ‘Distance Learning Program.’ The program which is an outgrowth of the Mentorship Program started by Musicians for Harmony, has enabled students to pair with music tutors in the U.S. and Europe. The visionary Mentorship Program, recently referenced in The Wall Street Journal, is seen as a landmark initiative, marking the first time that American and British musicians are teaching Iraqi students via webcam/ Skype.

The Youth Orchestra of Iraq has enabled there to exist a dialogue established through music, creating a strong and identifiable bond as ‘Iraqi Musicians,’ and not people from different parts of a war-torn country. Creating a strong base for music to be learnt and felt in a suppressed region is the long term goal of the Orchestra. Ending with a quote said by conductor MacAldin, seems to be the apt way to end an un-ending success story-

“'A safe space to make music together – that’s all we want. Playing together, we can concentrate on listening and hence, enjoy silence. Learning to conduct, we can learn to lead. It is through this that we will be able to share our music with everyone.”

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN-3742

THE MESSAGE: A WALK THROUGH THE RELIGIOUS INTERIORS OF NAJAF WITNESSING THE POWER OF ALI

Iraq, a land well known for its conflict, unsteady political atmosphere, and invasion by superpowers, holds extremely significant to the Shiite population who ensure a pilgrimage to the holy cities of Karbalah and Najaf at least once in their lifetime. In a country where the value of life is close to nill, and bombings are a usual affair, one feels instant peace when visiting the shrines of the Prophets son-in law Ali, and Ali’s son Hussain.

Islam began in 600 AD. After the death of the prophet, Maulana Ali, undertook his journey to Najaf and settled there. Islam began spreading once again under his leadership, and Maulana Ali was seen as greatly powerful and influential. In the 7^th century, the Kufa masjid was built in Najaf, it was from this mosque that Maulana Ali spread his sermons and led the daily namaaz. The mosque is historical for numerous reasons. the first being that it was in the qibla of this mosque, which is where the imam leads his prayers from, where Maulana Ali was killed. Ibn Muljim, belonging to the Kharijite clan, was amongst the many enemies of Islam. The spread and popularity of Maulana Ali, drove him into killing the Imam. It was in the month of Ramazan on the 19^th day that Maulana Ali was attacked while in the midst of his fajr (morning) prayer. Ibn Muljam hid in the shadows of the mosque with a poisonous sword in his hands and as Maulana Ali bent down in sajdah to acquire blessings from Allah, Ibn Muljim hit the sword on his head, leading to Maulana Ali being fatally injured. He succumbed to his injuries on the 21^st of Ramazan, and then began the start of the rise of his beloved son Hussain.

Another reason as to why the Kufa mosque is considered monumental is because it is believed that 1200 prophets have prayed here, including Abraham and Noah. One prayer in this mosque is worth a thousand prayers in one’s lifetime. The 11,000sqm of Kufa is embedded with history in every crevice, and a visit there is liberating.

The 52^nd Da’i-al-Mutlaq of the Dawoodi Bohra community, Dr. Syedna Mohammed Burhanuddin Saheb undertook the renovation of Kufa, which was completed in the year 2010. The mosque is grand, with two golden domes, and four minarets adorned with gold. The sehen (courtyard) of Kufa, is made up of marble tiles from Greece which ensure a cool surface even during the scorching heat of summer. The insides are adorned with 1400 lanterns, commemorating the 1400^th year of Islam according to the lunar calendar. The qibla of the mosque where believers bow down and pray, has excerpts from the Quran written in diamonds and rubies. There engraved, are 12 ruby teardrops each having the words ‘Ali’ carved into them. Believers ensure they pray in this mosque at least twice, on their visit to Najaf.

In the heart of the old city lies the ‘heart’ of the Islamic world, Maulana Ali’s shrine. The Imam, was said to have been buried secretly as he did not want his enemies to know the place where he finally lay. It was the 6^th Imam, Ja’far-as-sadiq who discovered Maulana Ali’s grave, and it is here that 120 million Shiites flock to attain spiritual blessings and do dua. The Dawoodi Bohra community is the singular community that does not believe in giving a face to any of the Imams and the Prophet, however, the Iraqi’s have a bunch of flags, pendants, and posters of a sketch of Maulana Ali outside the shrine. One has to pass four security check points before entering the shrine, where major frisking and checking is done.

The area of the shrine is magnificent, surrounded by four large walls adorned with blue, yellow, and white stones, each hand placed to form various designs. A clock tower with a golden dome, stands above the main entrance leading to the shrine. The shrine itself is glorious, made completely out of gold, it stands as a towering structure, in front of which one truly feels like they are standing in front of the son of God. On the pillars of the shrine, are designs made in ruby and diamond.

The shrine was first built by the Iranian ruler the Daylamite Fannakhosraw Azod ad Dowleh in 977 over the tomb of Ali. However it was destroyed by a fire, and was later rebuilt by Seljuk Malik Shah I in 1086. Recently it has been newly renovated by Syedna Mohammad Burhanuddin Saheb.

On entering the shrine, one witnesses the passion and devotion Maulana Ali has filled believers with. Shiite Muslims worldwide sit in numerous groups, each practicing their own form of prayer and matam (beating the chest in mourning). To see so many sects of Muslims, all gathering at one holy place for the same cause, is truly overwhelming.

To reach the walls of the grave, ironic as it may seem, feels like one has entered into a mini-war zone. Even though the men and the women are separated, one can get crushed in the midst of all the desperation to reach the wall. Whether one visits at 11pm or 4am, the crowd never seems to die down, hence proving the overwhelming power of Ali.

The grave, financed and built by Dr. Syedna Mohammad Burhanuddin Saheb, is magnificent in itself. The jaali of the grave is golden, while the door has words inscribed in diamonds and emeralds. The jaali has grape vines and deers carved into it, as it was said that Maulana Ali was very fond of both. The top of the grave has leaves with Ali written in them, surrounding the entire periphery. The area has a prayer room, with a complete crystal ceiling, where people sit for hours in peace and complete silence.

It is true that the shrine has received its share of battering. In 2004, a car bomb exploded outside the shrine killing a 100 people. The bombings seemed to be the work of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, a militant from Jordan. It was in the same year that the Mahdi army ceased the area of the shrine and used their base for carrying out attacks against the government, Iraqi police, and the coalition forces. In the latest attack in the year 2006, a suicide bomber was responsible for the death of 45 people outside the shrine.

As a city, Najaf is well developed and progressing. However the charm of the old city, the markets, and the lanes leading to the shrine makes one aware of the history that took place on these very roads centuries ago. One feels a different sort of aura on these roads, which they are sure to keep within them even after they have left.

ZAHRA AMIRUDDIN (3742)